Welcome to the
next frontier
The V2 Rocket
Seventy-eight years ago, humankind saw the launch of its first artificial object into space.
The V2 rocket was the world's first large-scale liquid-propellant rocket, developed between 1936 and 1942 in Nazi Germany. Each V2 was 46 ft high and carried 900 kg of explosives.
Although there is no exact figure, estimates suggest that several thousand people were killed by weaponized V2s during WWII.
After the war, von Braun shared his knowledge of the V2 rocket with the U.S. and eventually accepted the role of Director (some say not by choice) at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center.
October 4th, 1957
Soviet Union launches Sputnik
Sputnik was an aluminum sphere (about the size of a beach ball) with four thin legs. The satellite was entirely full with communications equipment. It orbited space for three months emitting a regular pattern of beeps.
The launch surprised and concerned many Americans, including politicians who criticized President Eisenhower for failing to take the space race seriously. It shattered the perception created by American propaganda of the United States as the technological superpower, and the Soviet Union as a backward country.
The satellite's development and success demonstrated how space and aeronautics research would reach critical milestones. A Soviet engineer involved in developing the military proposal for Sputnik stated that "the satellite is an inevitable stage on the path of the rocket development, which would make possible interplanetary travel." His proposal reflected how each the knowledge learned to achieve each goal by a national space program is immediately relevant to achieving the next one. First satellite, first animal, first human...
1957's launch kicked off the Cold War's space race. An American satellite was finally launched from Cape Canaveral in 1958.
The
Apollo
Program
APOLLO 8
Crew members (left to right):
Frank F. Borman II, James A. Lovell Jr., William A. Anders
The Apollo program was the third United States human spaceflight program carried out by NASA, which succeeded in landing the first humans on the Moon in 1969. The United States spent approximately $260B (inflation adjusted) on the Apollo program.
Apollo 8 was also significant for its role in preparing for the later moon landing missions. The mission tested the lunar module in orbit and provided valuable data for future missions. The successful completion of the Apollo 8 mission boosted public and political support for the space program and helped to pave the way for the Apollo 11 mission, which saw the first moon landing in July 1969.
Overall, the Apollo 8 mission marked a turning point in the history of space exploration and was a triumph for the United States in the midst of the Cold War.
The highlight of the mission was the famous 'Earthrise' photograph, taken by Anders, which showed the Earth rising above the moon's horizon. This photo became an iconic image of the 1960s and helped to popularize the idea of space exploration.
New York Times, Monday, July 21, 1969
APOLLO 11
Apollo 11 was the first mission in which humans landed on the moon and returned safely to Earth. The mission was launched on July 16, 1969 and consisted of three astronauts: Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins. Armstrong and Aldrin became the first humans to walk on the moon while Collins orbited above.
The moon landing marked a major milestone in space exploration and was seen as a victory for the United States in the "Space Race" with the Soviet Union. The Apollo 11 mission remains one of the most significant events in human history and has inspired countless generations to explore and push the boundaries of space exploration.
APOLLO 17
The Apollo 17 mission was the final manned mission to the moon as part of the Apollo program. Launched on December 7, 1972, the mission was crewed by Commander Gene Cernan, Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt, and Command Module Pilot Ronald Evans. This mission marked the end of the U.S. manned moon landing program and was the longest and most scientifically significant of all the Apollo missions.
Early Orbiting Infrastructure
1986 - 2001
Mir
was the first continuously inhabited, long-term research station in orbit and was occupied for 12.5 years. Mir was deorbited in March 2001 after funding was cut.
1973 - 1974
Skylab
was the first and only space station operated exclusively by the United States. Skylab's orbit eventually decayed, and it disintegrated in the atmosphere.
The International Space Station
The ISS has been orbiting Earth since 1999 and has been continuously inhabited by astronauts since 2000.
The permanently crewed orbital laboratory has served as a base for astronauts, a waypoint for exploration, a platform for Earth observation, and a base for microgravity research and manufacturing.
As the treaty between the governing nations comes to an end and as the ISS reaches the end of its useful life, the platform will be decommissioned, leaving a significant gap in the Western worldâs ability to operate in space.
Despite the retirement of the ISS, the U.S. is committed to sending national astronauts to low Earth orbit (LEO), codified by a 2020 congressional directive to sustain human presence in LEO.
= Respective agencies' astronauts deployed to ISS, 1999 - Feb 20235 agencies have cooperated for more than a decade to launch and maintain the ISS.
THE SPACE SHUTTLE
World's First Reusable Rocket
First Launch
April 12th, 1981
The Shuttle was originally billed as a spacecraft that would be able to launch once a week and maintain low launch costs through amortization over a significant launch cadence.
The Shuttle's incremental per-kg launch costs turned out to be considerably higher than those of expendable launchers. The final cost was estimated to be about $2.1 B per launch and the total program costs are estimated to be $238B (inflation adi.)
NASA launched the shuttle for 135 missions between its 1981 unveiling and its 2011 decommissioning. The vehicle was plagued with safety issues. Two out of the five spacecraft were destroyed in accidents (Challenger & Columbia), killing 14 astronauts, the largest loss of life in space exploration.
The Shuttle was an ultimate reflection of the bloated political infrastructure that resulted in a highly inefficient NASA decision making process.
1990s
Satellite Internet & Communications
Satellite internet upstarts emerged in the mid to late-90s as space became accessible thanks to the Shuttle and cheap capital of the Dot-com Bubble.
The significant losses that most investors experienced while investing in satellite companies like Iridium or Teledesic were attributable to a few common factors including: (1) high upfront capex, (2) market risk, and (3) innovation in terrestrial networks.
For example, Iridium is a global satellite phone company that was backed by Motorola. The Iridium constellation of 66 satellites to provide global wireless service cost $5B. It filed for bankruptcy in 1999 after defaulting on $1.5B in debt.
Model of first-generation satellite from Iridium
Despite aggressive marketing efforts, the company experienced a significant shortfall in subscriber additions - 20K one year after launch, vs. its original 500K forecast. Innovation in terrestrial cellular networks massively shrunk their potential market.
Iridium wasn't the only company giving satellite internet a try in the 90s - most went bankrupt, requiring the businesses to pivot.
